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In this section you introduce
theory and promising approaches tailored to your population and
issue.
This includes a discussion of
theoretical perspectives that has been useful in designing
similar interventions and that fits with your approach – And describing successful programs
used with similar populations, with indication of how barriers
were overcome to effectively intervene.
Information for this section comes from literature review of
studies that include theoretical approaches you find useful, and
programs that you would like to mirror. If none can be found,
then describe useful theoretical models for addressing the
issue, and approaches that have been recommended or can be
modified to your situation.
Example
Here is an example of a section 4 using an Animal-Assisted
Program.
(important
components in colored italics)
According to Lazarus’ Transactional Model of
Stress and Coping, when faced with a stressor, a person
evaluates the significance of the threat, and his/her ability to
respond to the threat, and the coping efforts are aimed at
decreasing the physical, emotional, and psychological burdens
associated with the stressor
(outlines stress and coping theory). Various coping
strategies have been found to be effective in managing stress,
including problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and
meaning-based coping (Wenzel, Glanz, & Lerman, 2002; Weintraub,
1989; Taylor, 1995). However, coping is a complex process,
influenced by personality traits, coping styles, and situational
demands (Wenzel et al.; Weintraub; Taylor; Wang & Patten, 2002).
Often multiple coping strategies are needed to manage some
stressful events (provides
information on coping theory).
One promising strategy to
moderate stress responses is exposure to the presence of an
animal. Various studies have demonstrated reductions in blood
pressure after exposure to animals (Friedmann, Katcher, Thomas,
Lynch, and Messent, 1983; DeSchriver & Riddick, 1990). Results
of a study by Allen, Blascovich, Tomaka, and Kelsey (1991)
demonstrated that autonomic reactivity was diminished by the
presence of a companion animal. In the presence of pets, female
subjects showed little physiologic reactivity during completion
of a stressful task; however, in the presence of their closest
friends, subjects showed greater reactivity. The authors
concluded that the pets provided nonjudgmental social support
which buffered acute responses to stress. The authors also
speculated that pets induce positive feelings which enhance an
individual’s capacity to adapt to stress. Allen, Blascovich, and
Mendes (2002) also demonstrated that pets buffer reactivity to
and diminish perceptions of acute stress through induction of
positive-feeling states
(introduces the specific approach taken in the intervention
project and gives evidence of its effectiveness).
Much of the research on the effects of interactions
of animals with older adults has been conducted in nursing
homes, where pet visitation programs, such as H.A.B.I.T. -
Human-Animal Bond in Tennessee, have become quite popular.
Established in 1986, the H.A.B.I.T. program currently has over
400 members involved in 70 different pet visitation programs to
nursing homes, assisted-living residences, retirement centers,
hospitals, and other facilities (Human-Animal Bond in Tennessee,
2004). However, only 1.1% of adults aged 65 to 74, 4.7% of
adults aged 75 to 84, and 18.2% of adults aged 85 and older live
in nursing homes (Administration on Aging, 2002)
(mentions a gap in specific animal therapy programs for the
specific population). Additional research is needed to
determine the effectiveness of interactions with animals among
non-institutionalized older adults.
[Notice you do not
specifically describe what you will do, just introduce the
theory and methods behind it. ]
Use the following
questions to help you develop your section 4.
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What health behavior
change theories relate to your topic and population and
can/are used to design your project? Introduce and describe
relevant theories.
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What model programs
or approaches can you use to help guide your intervention or
project? Describe how they are appropriate for your topic
and population. It would be important to show how theory and
promising approaches are congruent.
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Also, what evidence
is there that these approaches are promising for your
population and topic. Provide evidence of the effectiveness
of the approaches, and indicate where you will need to
modify or combine approaches to fit your situation.
Ways in which theory can be used:
•Program Design (strategies and
messages)
What is your
conceptual model of how your program will create intended
outcomes? In other words what theories and constructs within
theories can be used to guide your intervention. Theoretical principles
are studied to determine the most effective means for promoting
change in your population and for your issue. Your program
should follow behavior change theory. For example, theory tells
us that knowledge
precedes change in attitude, and that attitudes must be in line
before someone changes their behavior. However, if someone does
not have the skills or resources it is unlikely they will be
able to change their behavior. This should tell you education
(knowledge and skill development) has to happen before expecting
behavior change!
•Variable Measurement and Survey Design
How can you
use theory to design evaluation tools? In other words if
your project follows theory, then to determine if it worked
according to theory, you need to measure changes in theoretical
constructs you hope to see changes in. Make sure you are
measuring the important theoretical components of your
intervention to show it worked as designed. So if you
intervention is focused on changing knowledge then you need to
make sure you measure exactly what knowledge you set out to
change to see if it indeed occurred.
•Statistical Analysis of data
How can you use theory for your data analysis plan?
If your program followed theory, and you are trying to
measure changes using theoretical constructs then how should the
data analysis be performed to show theory was used and worked.
Would you expect behavior change? Or maybe more realistically a
change in intentions to change? Again theory can help guide the
process of what kinds of outcomes you should see and when.
Theory Review
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